Royal palaces gave way to fortresses with the advent of the Selǧūq Turks in the 11th century of the Common Era. Doubtless this had to do with partitioning the large empires of early Islamdom into numerous warring kingdoms and principalities and the resultant insecurity, not to mention outside threats from different quarters starting with a resurgent Byzantium in the second half of the 10th century all the way to the Crusades 100 years later and the onslaught of the Mongol hordes in the mid-13th century.
Needless to say, the function of those fortresses was primarily defensive, but they also served as royal residences and occasionally burial places. A case in point is that of Saladin, who was buried in the Citadel of Damascus, though his remains were removed shortly afterwards to his mausoleum located north of the ʾUmayyād Mosque.
Military constructions, specifically fortresses, achieved near perfection under the ʾAyyūbīds and had experienced a slow but steady decline in the following centuries, especially with the appearance of gunpowder empires. As far as the Citadel of Damascus is concerned, it assumed its current form in the early 13th century under al-Malik al-ʿĀdil, who had the walls of the edifice rebuilt, modernized it, and endowed it with state-of-the-art military defenses. Al-ʿĀdil's primary motivation was perhaps his fear of his nephews' ambitions more so than the crusaders' threats.
The walls form an irregular rectangle located at the northwest corner of the Old City. The rectangle's lengths range between 225 and 240 meters and widths between 120 and 165 meters. It has two main gates: a northern one overlooking a canal of Baradā from a tower and an eastern one opening on sūq al-ʿAṣrūnīyyā inside the city. The Citadel has 12 huge towers connected with curtain walls 11 meters tall and 3.5 meters thick. The ruler resided in the west part of the edifice until the Mongol invasion in 1260. After expelling the Mongols, the Mamlūk Sultan Baybars ordered restoration works, but with time the Citadel gradually lost its military importance and fell victim to neglect. The south ditch was filled in the second half of the 19th century to create space for the west part of the picturesque sūq al-Ḥamīdīyyā, still a landmark of Damascus.
Gérard Degeorge. Syrie. Art, Histoire, Architecture. Hermann, éditeurs des sciences et des arts 1983.
ʿAbd al-Qādir ar-Rīḥāwī. Al-ʿAmārā fi al-Ḥaḍārā al-ʾIslāmīyyā 1990.





